Religious Liberty: Pontiffs, Politics and Protestants, from Francis to Leo XIV

Rugare Rukuni, Director of the Religious Liberty Department at Willowdale, offers the following historical analysis after the ascension of Leo XIV as the new pope.

This interdisciplinary outline examines the evolving relationship between papal authority, political engagement, and interfaith relations through two distinct historical lenses: the contemporary peacemaking of Pope Francis (2013-2025) and the doctrinal confrontations of the Leo Pontiffs (1049-1903). The research employs a novel infographic methodology inspired by medieval illuminated manuscripts and Reformation-era broadsheets to visually contrast these eras of ecclesiastical leadership.

The historical survey of Leo pontiffs demonstrates persistent patterns in papal governance: Leo IX’s Great Schism excommunication (1054) foreshadowed Leo X’s condemnation of Luther (1520), just as Leo XII’s anti-Protestant measures (1824) anticipated modern tensions over religious liberty. The infographic timeline visually anchors these moments in their geopolitical contexts, using excommunication bulls as symbolic turning points.

With the ascension of Pope Leo XIV, the study concludes by questioning whether future papacies will continue Francis’ ‘progressive engagement’ or revert to defensive postures reminiscent of the Leo era. Contemporary footage of religious liberty debates serves as a coda, inviting viewers to consider how historical patterns inform current religious polity.

This work contributes to historiographical debates about papal soft power while offering a template for visually representing complex ecclesiastical diplomacy across millennia.

Pope Francis’ Political Action

Pope Francis transformed Francis of Assisi’s call—”Lord, make me an instrument of Your peace”—into a force of political and humanitarian action.

Prayer of Francis of Assisi

“Lord, make me an instrument of Your peace.

Where there is hatred, let me sow love;

Where there is injury, pardon;

Where there is doubt, faith;

Where there is despair, hope;

Where there is darkness, light;

Where there is sadness, joy.”

Diplomacy of Peace: Sudan and Gaza

• Named the war as a “tragedy ignored by the powerful” (2023 Urbi et Orbi).
• Pressured arms suppliers, asking, “Why fuel the fire?”—a direct challenge to Western and Gulf states.
• Calling for “the immediate release of all hostages” while denouncing the bombing of civilians.
• Sending Vatican mediators to negotiate aid routes, bypassing stalled UN Security Council talks.
• Labeling the war “a failure of humanity”, framing it as a moral crisis, not just a political one.

Social Justice as Political Disruption

Francis’ encyclicals were policy manifestos disguised as theology. Laudato Si’ (2015) tied climate collapse to economic exploitation, influencing the Paris Agreement. Fratelli Tutti (2020) rejected border militarization, aligning with UN migration pacts. His synods on the Amazon and synodality turned Indigenous rights and female leadership into institutional battles, challenging secular governments.

Wither to, now the new Pope assumed the name Pope Leo XIV.

Timeline of Popes Leo IX to Leo XIII (1049–1903)

Pope Leo IX (1049–1054)

• Years: 1049–1054
• Vatican & Eastern Church:
  • 1054 Great Schism: Mutual excommunications between Leo IX (via Cardinal Humbert) and Patriarch Michael Cerularius of Constantinople.
  • Bull of Excommunication: In Terra Pax (though the actual document was a simpler condemnation).

• Vatican & Politics:

• • Allied with Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor, against the Normans in Southern Italy.
  • Defeated at the Battle of Civitate (1053), captured briefly by the Normans.

Pope Leo X (1513–1521)

• Years: 1513–1521
• Vatican & Protestantism:
  • 1517: Martin Luther posts 95 Theses against indulgences.
  • 1520: Leo X issues Exsurge Domine (June 1520), condemning Luther’s teachings and giving him 60 days to recant.
  • 1521: After Luther burns the bull, Leo X excommunicates him via Decet Romanum Pontificem (January 1521).

• Vatican & Politics:

• • Allied with Charles V (HRE) but struggled with French influence.
  • Concordat of Bologna (1516): Gave French kings control over church appointments.

Pope Leo XI (1605 – 27-day reign)

• Years: April 1–27, 1605
• Vatican & Protestantism:
  • Reign too short for major actions, but the Counter-Reformation was ongoing (Jesuits, Inquisition).
• Vatican & Politics:
  • Backed by France (Medici family) but died before implementing policies.

Pope Leo XII (1823–1829)

• Years: 1823–1829
• Vatican & Protestantism:
  • Strong anti-Protestant stance: Banned Protestant worship in Papal States.
  • Ubi Primum (1824): Condemned Bible societies distributing Protestant translations.
• Vatican & Politics:
  • Reactionary rule: Restored medieval-style governance in Papal States.
  • Opposed liberalism, secularism, and revolutions.

Pope Leo XIII (1878–1903)

• Years: 1878–1903
• Vatican & Protestantism:
  • Satis Cognitum (1896): Reaffirmed papal supremacy, rejecting Protestant ecclesiology.
  • Encouraged limited dialogue but maintained Catholic exclusivity.
• Vatican & Politics:
  • Rerum Novarum (1891): Landmark encyclical on workers’ rights, opposing socialism but supporting labor unions.
  • “Prisoner of the Vatican”: Refused to recognize the Kingdom of Italy after losing the Papal States (1870).
• Vatican & Eastern Church:
  • Orientalium Dignitas (1894): Promoted Eastern Catholic rites while affirming Roman primacy.
  • Sought reconciliation with Orthodox but faced resistance.

Key Excommunication Bulls & Conflicts

Religious Liberty and the Religious Liberty Commission: Deducing lessons from history on this past week’s events.

• The New Catholic Radicals, article from Liberty Magazine